Abnormal Psychology Concepts: Then and Now

 Robert Fettgather, PhD, has served as an associate faculty member at Mission College in Santa Clara, California, since 1983. When he is not leading courses in general, developmental, and abnormal psychology, among other subjects, Robert Fettgather enjoys hiking and boating.

Abnormal psychology is a distinct branch of psychology focused on atypical behavioral patterns and uncommon emotions and thoughts that may qualify as mental disorders. 

In modern times, aspects of this psychological discipline can be traced back to Karl Jaspers, who published the book General Psychopathology in 1913. It was an instrumental title in reframing interpretations of individual mental experiences, particularly those that might be considered unusual or out of the ordinary. Over the course of more than a century, the discipline has evolved to emphasize in-depth, medical-based studies of various mental illnesses, which may be caused by factors as diverse as genetics and social influence.

Psychopathology is the focus on the underlying disease processes or pathology, causing the abnormal behavior. Abnormal psychologists may study several clinical and personality disorders. One of the most common behavioral disorders in the United States is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD refers to impulsive actions and the inability to focus on a single topic or activity. It is usually diagnosed and treated in childhood, with a prevalence rate of approximately 9.4 percent. However, a 2019 study found that ADHD prevalence in adults had nearly reached 1 percent, doubling over a decade. It is not clear whether the trend represents sound medicine or diagnostic inflation. Personality disorders include obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), narcissistic personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder. Interestingly, OCPD is different than a similarly named disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). OCPD is characterized by a preoccupation with perfectionism and a staunch dedication to rules and standards. Behaviors associated with OCD include repeated obsessions and compulsions. Treatment options for OCD generally involve exposure and response prevention, cognitive behavioral therapy, and a regimen of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

Historically, abnormal psychology was preceded by various religious traditions including shamanism that involved rituals such as incantations and exorcisms. Trephining, involving drilling a hole directly into the skull, was utilized as an attempt to promote healing by the early Greeks and the Chinese. Primitive and dangerous ancient methods can overshadow reasonable contributions from Tradiotional Chinese Medicine, including some herbal interventions.

The Structure of Language

Robert Fettgather is an associate faculty member at Mission College in Santa Clara, California, where he has taught courses in developmental psychology, general psychology, abnormal psychology, psychiatric interviewing, and developmental disabilities. Robert Fettgather has published numerous articles in the fields of education and psychology. 

To understand the structure of language, there is some basic terminology.  Here you go: Semantics is the rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences. Next sounds. Phonemes represent the most basic units of sounds used in language, while morphemes combine those bits of sound into the smallest units that have meaning.  Next, more rules. Grammar includes all the rules for combining morphemes into words, and syntax is the rules for combining words into sentences. Lastly niceties. Pragmatics deals with the practical aspects of communicating with others or the social etiquette of language.

Many scientists argue that what truly sets us apart from other species is our language. Behaviorist B.F. Skinner wrote a classic work on language acquisition, Verbal Behavior, and most people, like Skinner, believe we learn language through imitation and reinforcement. But it's actually far more complex. How do you explain that a child says foots instead of feet or "I swimmed"? Here, children are applying (incorrectly) language and grammar rules they have never been taught for singular/plural and past tense. But how? 

According to famed psycholinguist Noam Chomsky, humans possess an innate ability to comprehend and produce language through a mechanism he called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD has an "innate facility" for acquiring language, including grammar.

The Sapir- Whorf hypothesis states that the structure of a language very much influences (some say determines) the modalities of thought and behavior of the culture in which it is spoken.  For example, Alaska Natives have many terms that refer to “snow,” which may cause them to perceive and think about snow differently than English speakers-- especially those from low snow environments.

An opposing theory to Sapir-Whorf, known as cognitive universalism, submits the proposition that ways of thinking (cognition) are shared among all groups of people and that those thought patterns influence the development of language.

Animals other than humans demonstrate a diverse ability to communicate, but it is unclear whether or not they have the capability for language, as demonstrated by the ability to use abstract symbols to communicate. Kanzi, a bonobo chimpanzee, has demonstrated an ability to understand about 150 spoken English words

Appreciating Other Points of View

Robert Fettgather has served as Special Consultant in psychometrics to the Departments of Education and Developmental Disabilities for the State of California. Robert Fettgather holds a specialist credential in learning handicapped and community college credentials in both learning and developmental disabilities.

In addition to cultural and individual differences, perceptions can be influenced by perceptual sets or expectancies. One example of perceptual expectancy is top-down processing. This happens when an individual utilizes pre-existing knowledge to place certain features into an organized whole. If there is no expectancy to help organize information, a person might use bottom-up processing to build a complete perception by making sense of the smaller features piece by piece. With a friend, try this experiment from Martin Bolt: print on a piece of paper the words below. Then read aloud these three words as your friend looks at the words and reads along with you:

FOLK CROAK SOAK

Next, immediately ask, what do you call the white of an egg? That expectation tricks the friend into a wrong answer, yolk!

Bottom-up processing starts with information and energy from the environment. Top-down processing refers to using past experience, knowledge, and expectations for how we perceive things (as in the example above). Remember that perception is a representation of our environment,  not a replication-- therefore, everyone’s perceptions may be different, and they may not be necessarily accurate. Once realized, this understanding allows for a deeper appreciation of different points of view!

Habits Toward Health

 

Robert Fettgather, Ph.D. is a counselor, educator, writer and activist residing in Grass Valley, California.  He holds a doctorate in psychology and master degrees in both psychology and education. Robert Fettgather teaches psychology at Mission College.

Individual differences in health habits and personality variables begin to affect physical functioning in these years. Twenty-somethings: It's time to get real about the habits that'll make a difference the rest of your life. Hint- Fun is part of the strategy.

Research suggests that, regardless of income level, changes in behavior may prevent or even reverse the effects of aging. The best evidence for the long-term effects of various health habits comes from nearby in the Alameda County Study, a major longitudinal epidemiological research project. The researchers initially identified seven good health habits that they thought might be critical:  drinking excessive amounts of alcohol, smoking cigarettes, being obese, sleeping fewer or more than seven to eight hours per night, being physically inactive, eating between meals, and not eating breakfast. Group membership was also a positive influencer. 

So let's take a look at some lifestyle habits that are worth changing that are summarized in you text and presented here with a few of my own additions:

If Overweight, Lose Just 10% of Your Body Weight

Benefits-reduction in triglyceride levels; decrease in total cholesterol; increase in HDL (“good” cholesterol); significant reduction in blood pressure; decreased risk of diabetes, sleep apnea, and osteoarthritis.

Add 20 to 30 Grams of Fiber to Your Diet Each Day 

Benefits-Improved bowel function; reduced risk of colon cancer and other digestive-system diseases; decrease in total cholesterol; reduced blood pressure; improved insulin function in both diabetics and nondiabetics. Food rich in fiber include fruits, vegetables, beans, legumes, grains and nuts.

Learn To Meditate

Meditation has many physical and emotional benefits including stress reduction.  Health, happiness, self-control, concentration, and improved productivity.

Engage in Moderate Physical Activity Every Day (e.g., Walk Up and Down Stairs for 15 Minutes; Spend 30 Minutes Washing a Car). Benefits include reduced feelings of anxiety and sadness; increased bone density; reduced risk of diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and many other life-shortening diseases.