A Famous Brain Injury and a Well Known Experiment

 

Robert Fettgather has taught at San Jose State University, National University and Mission College in Santa Clara. In addition, Robert Fettgather has addressed State and National Conferences on a variety of topics. 

Damage to the right parietal and occipital lobes can cause a condition known as spatial neglect where the individual ignores objects in their left visual field. Phineas P. Gage (1823–1860) was an American railroad construction foreman who is remembered for survival of a terrible accident in which a large thirteen pound tamping iron was driven completely through his skull- destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe!

As a result of the accident, he is said to have suffered a change in personality, becoming a surly, aggressive drunkard who was unable to hold down a job. 

Reflection Point: Is your personality determined solely by your brain? 

There are two cerebral hemispheres and the structures connecting them (the corpus callosum). The split-brain research studies of Roger Sperry, particularly in his work with epileptic patients, helped scientists to figure out that the two cerebral hemispheres are not identical.  In trying to treat epilepsy, Sperry cut through the corpus callosum creating a kind of "split brain".  In this experiment, the patient 'Joe' is being tested by Michael Gazzaniga who worked with Roger Sperry.

The left hemisphere is typically more active when a person is using language, math, and other analytical skills. The the right hemisphere demonstrates more activity during tasks of recognition and perception as well as the expression of emotions. Lateralization is the term for this split in the tasks of the brain.

Neurons And The Nervous System

Robert Fettgather, Ph.D. is a counselor, educator, writer and activist residing in Grass Valley, California.  He holds a doctorate in psychology and master degrees in both psychology and education. Robert Fettgather has served as Special Consultant in psychometrics to the Departments of Education and Developmental Disabilities for the State of California. Robert Fettgather also holds a specialist credential in learning handicapped and community college credentials in both learning and developmental disabilities.

The role of the nervous system is to carry information to and from all parts of the body. The cells in the nervous system that relay and carry information are referred to as neurons. Neurons use an electrical signal to send information from one end of its cell to the other end. At rest, a neuron has a negative charge on the inside and a positive charge outside. When a signal arrives, "gates" in the cell wall next to the signal open and the positive charge moves inside. The positive charge inside the cell causes the next set of gates to open to allow those positive charges to move inside. So in this manner, the electrical signal makes its way down the length of the cell.

Neurons relay messages on to targeted cells using a chemical signal. Dendrites receive information from other neurons, and axons send information to other neurons. When the electrical signal makes its way down the axon and arrives at other end of the neuron (the axon terminal), it enters the outermost tip of the terminal (the synaptic knob). That engenders  the neurotransmitters in the synaptic vesicles to be released into a space between the two cells that is filled with liquid. This fluid-filled space is called the synapse or the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitters are the chemical signals the neuron uses to communicate with its target cell. The neurotransmitters fit into the receptor sites of the target cell and create a new electrical signal that then can be transmitted down the length of the target cell.

The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord is an elongated bundle of neurons that relays information between the brain and the rest of the human body.  Afferent (sensory) neurons relay messages from our senses to the spinal cord. For example, sensory neurons would relay information about a sharp pain in your finger or when you touch your hand on a hot stove. Efferent (motor) neurons direct commands from the spinal cord to our muscles- for example, a command to pull your finger back.

Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons and help to coordinate the signals. All three of these neurons act together in the spinal cord to form a reflex arc. 

Phone Addiction?

Robert Fettgather has served as Special Consultant in psychometrics to the Departments of Education and Developmental Disabilities for the State of California. He holds a specialist credential in learning handicapped and community college credentials in both learning and developmental disabilities. The Institute for Personality and Ability Testing has certified Robert Fettgather as a Stress Management Trainer, and Medical Hypnosis Seminars of the Los Gatos Institute has certified him in Clinical Hypnotherapy.  At Santa Clara University, Graduate Department of Education and Counseling Psychology, Robert Fettgather's studies included Health Education and Behavioral Medicine.

What about smartphone addiction? Well, its not in the DSM. but it has received the attention of researchers. In Cell Phone Addiction: A Review the authors discuss the problem: "sleep disturbance, anxiety, stress, and, to a lesser extent, depression...have been associated with problematic cell-phone use. In addition, the present review reveals the coexistence relationship between problematic cell-phone use and substance use such as tobacco and alcohol".

Look around. If your smartphone is nearby, its mere proximity could be diminishing your concentration as you read this blog! So says an interesting study on the topic from the University of Texas. There is also research to suggest that smartphone addictions are negatively affecting social relationships.  In fact, when we snub others in favor of looking at our phones, that's been dubbed "phubbing". According to social psychologist Jonathan Haidt: "Smartphones and social media platforms (have been) adopted faster than any communication technology before it...By 2023, more than 46 percent of teens report being online "almost all of the time." 

What about chatbots? Dr. Allen Frances states,  "Hooking kids early on chatbots is much easier than hooking them on drugs—it just takes helping them do their homework (and) Chatbots are doubling in efficiency every 7 months, while humans hooked on chatbots seem to lose cognitive efficacy". 

Yikes! This is an individual and societal problem requiring investigation and intervention across disciplines. Will it happen?

 

Psychopathology Models And Stigma.

Robert Fettgather has taught at San Jose State University, National University and Mission College in Santa Clara.  He has addressed State and National Conferences on a variety of topics. Robert Fettgather,  is a counselor, educator, writer and activist residing in Grass Valley, California.  Moreover, Robert Fettgather holds a doctorate in psychology and master degrees in both psychology and education. 

Abnormal psychology encompasses various models or perspectives, many of which have been covered in preceding course modules. The sociocultural model considers the impact of culture on behavior, emphasizing the assessment of psychological disorders within the context of cultural relativity. Certain cultures exhibit culture-bound syndromes, representing specific psychological disorders exclusive to particular cultural settings. The biological model of psychopathology posits that psychological disorders stem from physical or biological causes. The psychoanalytical model attributes disorders to repressed thoughts in the unconscious mind, rooted in past experiences. The behaviorist model interprets disorders as learned behaviors influenced by the environment. Cognitive psychologists introduce the cognitive model, explaining psychological disorders as outcomes of flawed thought patterns. The biopsychosocial model is comprehensive, asserting that abnormal behavior results from a combination of biological, psychological, cultural, and social factors.

Stigma, is defined as a negative attitude toward groups based on perceived characteristics. Licht emphasizes that being the target of stigma can lead to lower self-esteem, impaired social functioning, and reluctance to seek treatment. In a powerful video, Kitty Westin utilizes true stories and scientific facts to illustrate ways to challenge thinking and actively participate in reducing stigma and shame, urging the audience to join the fight against these detrimental attitudes.

Our Senses

 

The Institute for Personality and Ability Testing has certified Robert Fettgather as a Stress Management Trainer, and Medical Hypnosis Seminars of the Los Gatos Institute has certified him in Clinical Hypnotherapy.  At Santa Clara University, Graduate Department of Education and Counseling Psychology, Robert Fettgather's studies included Health Education and Behavioral Medicine.

Sensation is the process by which sensory organs in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin, and other tissues receive and detect stimuli. When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor, then sensation has occurred.

Perception focuses on the organization and interpretation of these stimuli within the human brain. These two work closely together to allow us to experience the world as coherent and meaningful. Of course, the Escher-like print above is one example of visual stimuli that challenges our ability to form a coherent perception. Cloud gazing invites our own projections.

Sensation allows us to receive information from the world around us. According to your text: "Studying sensation means studying human beings, who are complex and variable. Not everyone is born with the same collection of stimulus-detecting equipment. Some individuals have eyes that see "20/20"; while others have worn glasses since they were young children. There is even variation within a given individual".  Yes, human variability does figure into our study of sensation. Let's start with an uncommon experience of sensation. Synesthesia is a rare and unusual condition in which an individual experiences more than one sensation related to a sole stimulus. For example, consider the person who can hear and see... a sound.

For many of us, vision seems to be the most essential of the senses. The retina is quite tiny, the size of a quarter. It contains the sensory receptor neurons that transform incoming light waves in to an electrical-chemical signal that the nervous system can comprehend. Each eye has two types of sensory receptors, rods and cones. Approximately 70 percent of the sensory receptors located in your eyes are rods. Rods perceive the brightness of light and send messages about the levels of black, white, as well as shades of gray. With the exception of the "blind spot", rods occupy the entire retina. To discover why the spot is blind see below. Rods are quite light sensitive, and produce images with low sharpness or acuity. Our ability for the eyes to make adjustments to darkness, as in a dark room, and eventually see objects is mediated by the rods in our eyes. That is referred to as dark adaptation.

Environmental Factors In Addiction

Robert Fettgather has taught at San Jose State University, National University and Mission College in Santa Clara. In addition, Robert Fettgather has addressed State and National Conferences on a variety of topics. The Transactional Analysis Journal, Voices: The Art and Science of Psychotherapy, and Lifelong Learningjave have published Robert Fettgather's articles on a variety of topics.

What makes some people abuse and become addicted to drugs, while others do not seem to develop a long term problem? As we seek out answers, our first stop is "Rat Park".  Researcher Bruce Alexander designed an experiment showing that rats in bare cages were more likely to consume drugs excessively than rats in enriched environments-Rat parks.  More recent research by Dr. Marco Venniro also supports the view that social environments have a strong relationship to addiction.

Looking beyond the addictive properties of chemicals, Alexander's experiment emphasized environmental factors.  Psychiatrist Gabor Matte also underscores the importance of environmental antecedents to addiction. Specifically, Matte cites the "brokenness of the human spirit" through trauma in understanding substance abuse. 

Both Matte and Alexander believe that the environment is more influential than either genetics or perhaps even the addictive properties of drugs in predicting addiction.  Their work suggests that improved environments, as well as reducing poverty and childhood trauma/stress might make for fewer addiction problems in our society.

Reflection Point: Since early intervention reduces later drug abuse, how might we champion early intervention programs?

Redirect Thought To Blessings

 Robert Fettgather has served as Special Consultant in psychometrics to the Departments of Education and Developmental Disabilities for the State of California. Robert Fettgather also holds a specialist credential in learning handicapped and community college credentials in both learning and developmental disabilities. Robert Fettgather has taught at San Jose State University, National University and Mission College in Santa Clara.

Research evidence exists to support multiple causes of anxiety, including biological models that identify brain circuit and neurotransmitter involvement as well as psychological and social contributions. A multidimensional model of these factors considers how they all contribute simultaneously to the presence of abnormal, potentially pathological levels of anxiety. Environmental factors can be very significant contributors to anxiety and include our immediate environment (i.e., family or work) as well as larger factors like sociocultural bias (racism, sexism), economic policy, and even the forces of environmental degradation and climate change.

Both genetic and psychological vulnerabilities seem to contribute to the development of generalized anxiety disorder-GAD. Let us consider the experience of "threat". In particular is the fact that individuals with GAD seem to be more sensitive to threat in general, particularly when the threat has some personal relevance. Although drug and psychological treatments may be effective in the short term, the most successful long-term treatment may help individuals with GAD focus on what is really threatening to them in their lives. Benzodiazepine medications seem to be useful for an acute episode of anxiety, but there are risks for both psychological and physical dependence when used over time. Recent evidence suggests that antidepressant medications such as Paxil and Effexor may provide superior symptom relief over the benzodiazepines, and with fewer risks. 

Cognitive Behavioral treatment (CBT) of anxiety may involve the identification of "cognitive distortions"  (link to list). These distorted thoughts (for example, "I must be a perfect student") lead to anxiety and are replaced with rational alternative thoughts ( "I'm a good but not perfect student and I can learn from my mistakes").

In treating these anxieties in clinical practice, I often suggested an NNR approach where N stands for notice the cognitive distortion, the next N stands for naming it ("I'm ruminating") and R stands for redirecting one's thoughts to either the task at hand or an object of gratitude. The task at hand could be studying this Module, a conversation with a significant other, or washing the dishes. One might also redirect to a pleasant thought like a simple blessing.